Chemical Ecology

Falko Drijfhout, Keele University, Staffordshire, UK

Published online: September 2010

DOI: 10.1002/9780470015902.a0003265.pub2

Chemical ecology is the study of the structure, origin and function of naturally occurring chemicals that mediate intraspecific or interspecific interactions. These chemicals are known as semiochemicals. Depending on the function of a semiochemical, this group of chemicals can be further divided into three classes: pheromones, kairomones and allomones. At the heart of the discipline are modern analytical instrumentation, careful observational biology and good bioassay design. Research during the past 50 years has identified many different semiochemicals. Several of these chemicals are currently in use as pest control agents. Although the majority of the early research focused on (lepidopteran) sex pheromones, in recent years, a shift is seen into semiochemicals from other insects as well as noninsects such as mammals, marine animals or even micro-organisms. The field of chemical ecology has developed into a mature science with diverse practical applications, of which pest control is the most important.

Key Concepts:

  • Chemical ecology studies the structure, origin and function of naturally occurring chemicals that mediate intraspecific or interspecific interactions.
  • Bioassays are crucial in successfully identifying active semiochemicals.
  • Semiochemicals are divided into different categories, depending on their function in an organism.
  • Chemical ecology has a much wider application than only its use in pest control.
  • Chemical ecology is characterised by highly cross-disciplinary research.

Keywords: semiochemicals; behaviour; pheromone; allelochemicals; bioassay; chemical analysis; chemical synthesis

Figure 1. Categories of semiochemicals, with examples of their biological function (Howse, 1998). Definition of synomone according to Dicke and Sabelis (1992).
Figure 2. The diversity of the semiochemical geranial.
Figure 3. (a) Sex pheromone component of the oriental fruit moth. (b) Photograph of the oriental fruit moth. Copyright © Queen's Printer for Ontario, 2009, reproduced with permission.
Figure 4. (a) The predatory wasp, Vespula germanica (image courtesy of Scott Bauer, USDA Agricultural Research Service, Bugwood.org), uses the male-produced pheromone in the (b) Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) (image courtesy of Gary Alpert, Harvard University, Bugwood.org) to locate its prey.
Figure 5. An example of a tri-trophic interaction: a parasitic wasp (b) is attracted to maize plants (a) on which its prey, beet armyworm (c) has been feeding. (a) courtesy of Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org. (b) courtesy of Merle Shepard, Gerald R. Carner, and P.A.C Ooi, Insects and their Natural Enemies Associated with Vegetables and Soybean in Southeast Asia, Bugwood.org. (c) courtesy of Glen Rains, University of Georgia.
Figure 6. Diagram illustrating the dynamic plant–animal interactions (Harborne, 1993).
Figure 7. Flow chart of procedure for isolation and identification of pheromones (Stevens, 1998).
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 References
    book Breer H (1997) "Molecular mechanisms of pheromone reception in insect antennae". In: Cardé RT and Minks AK (eds) Insect Pheromone Research. New Directions, pp. 115–130. New York: Chapman & Hall.
    Butenandt A, Beckmann R, Stamm D and Hecker E (1959) Über den Sexual-lockstof des Seidenspinners, Bombyx mori. Reindarstellung und Konstitution. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung 14B: 283–284.
    book Dicke M and Sabelis MW (1992) "Costs and benefits of chemical information conveyance: proximate and ultimate factors". In: Roitberg BD and Isman MS (eds) Insect Chemical Ecology, pp. 122–155. New York and London: Chapman & Hall.
    book Evans HE (1984) Insect Biology, 436pp. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
    Ha T and Smith D (2009) Odorant and pheromone receptors in insects. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience 3: 10 doi:10.3389/neuro.03.010.2009.
    book Harborne JB (1993) Introduction to Ecological Biochemistry, 318pp. London: Academic Press.
    Howard RW and Blomquist GJ (2005) Ecological, behavioural and biochemical aspects of insect hydrocarbons. Annual Review of Entomology 50: 371–393.
    book Howse PE (1998) "Pheromones and behaviour". In: Howse PE, Stevens IDR and Jones OT (eds) Insect Pheromones and Their Use in Pest Management, pp. 1–134. London: Chapman & Hall.
    Lenoir A, D'Ettorre P and Errard C (2001) Chemical ecology and social parasitism in ants. Annual Review of Entomology 46: 573–599.
    book Prestwich GD and Du G (1997) "Pheromone-binding proteins, pheromone recognition, and signal transduction in moth olfaction". In: Cardé RT and Minks AK (eds) Insect Pheromone Research. New Directions, pp. 131–143. New York: Chapman & Hall.
    book Stevens IDR (1998) "Chemical aspects of pheromones". In: Howse PE, Stevens IDR and Jones OT (eds) Insect Pheromones and Their Use in Pest Management, pp. 135–260. London: Chapman & Hall.
 Further Reading
    book Cardé RT and Bell WJ (eds) (1995) Chemical Ecology of Insects 2. London: Chapman & Hall.
    book De Hoffmann E, Charette J and Stroobant V (1996) Mass Spectrometry Principles and Application. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
    book Dicke M and Takke W (eds) (2006) Chemical Ecology, From Gene to Ecosystem. The Netherlands: Springer.
    book Haynes KF and Millar JG (eds) (1998) Methods in Chemical Ecology, vol. 1: Chemical Methods. London: Chapman & Hall.
    book Haynes KF and Millar JG (eds) (1998) Methods in Chemical Ecology, vol. 2: Bioassay Methods. London: Chapman & Hall.
    book Howe HF and Westley LC (1988) Ecological Relationships of Plants and Animals. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
    book Karban R and Baldwin IT (1997) Induced Responses to Herbivory. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
    book McClintock JB and Baker BJ (eds) (2001) Marine Chemical Ecology. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
    book Muller-Schwarze D (2006) Chemical Ecology of Vertebrates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
    book Roitberg BD and Isman MB (eds) (1992) Insect Chemical Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach. London: Chapman & Hall.
    book Rosenthal GA and Janzen DH (eds) (1979) Herbivores: Their Interaction with Secondary Plant Metabolites. San Diego: Academic Press.
    book Wilson ID (ed.) (2000) Encyclopaedia of Separation Science, vols 1–10. San Diego: Academic Press.
    book Wyatt TD (2003) Pheromones and Animal Behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Related Sub-Topics:

Biochemical and Biophysical Techniques | Other Biomolecules: Structure, Function, Metabolism | Physiological Ecology | Ecological Methods
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Article Title: Chemical Ecology
 
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Drijfhout, Falko(Sep 2010) Chemical Ecology. In: eLS. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester. http://www.els.net [doi: 10.1002/9780470015902.a0003265.pub2]